This means focusing not only on what you say, but also on how you say it.  Essentially, voice refers to your writing style, which can be developed by understanding strong writing moves, used in published writing and practicing/applying them to your own writing.

This article is part two of a series of articles focusing on voice and style.  As a starting place, I have chosen to focus on clarity in order to build a foundation for the other writing moves we will discuss. 

Put simply, clarity refers to the elimination of under-developed, unessential, unclear, or awkward areas in one’s writing.

What Does it Mean to Embrace Clarity? 

Let’s relate clarity in writing to clarity in life.  People (more often than not) in modern society are fascinated with the accumulation of wealth, as demonstrated by their possessions.  I think this is a safe generalization to make.  Recently, I went to a community garage sale in an affluent neighborhood and noticed the following items:  plates, cups, books, clothes, a washer and dryer, garden tools, whole sets of furniture, lamps, games, videos…  It’s not that the items were not useful, just that the family had replaced them with newer versions.  When we vacation, we pick up souvenirs (that t-shirt from Cancun, a snow globe from the ski village) and on birthdays, holidays, and sometimes for no reason at all, we give gifts (artwork, candles, ties, books). Because of this, we feel the need to de-clutter our lives from time to time.  This has fueled an “organization” movement, spawning reality television shows such as TLC’s “Clean Sweep” and magazines such as Real Simple that promise to make life “simpler every day.” 

Clarity in writing is a “Clean Sweep” intervention for the chaos created by word clutter.  Writers should keep their expression “Real Simple,” eliminating unnecessary and repetitious words, redundant ideas, and awkward phrasing.  In this revision process, even those words or phrases that we are especially proud of may face elimination (a former English teacher called this “slaughtering your darlings”). 

The first goal for revision should be clarity, re-envisioning the work, line by line, word by word, making sure that ideas are clear, well-supported, and simple.  If this task is accomplished, you will have the foundation for the other writing moves we will discuss in this article series.

Notes from the Expert:  Zinsser on Simplicity 

William Zinsser, author of On Writing Well (considered by many to be the classic book on writing), states that simplicity is the key to good writing. 

“Strip every sentence to its cleanest components.  Every word that serves no function, every long word that could be a short word, every adverb that carries the same meaning that’s already in the verb, every passive construction that leaves the reader unsure of who is doing what –these are the thousand and one adulterants that weaken the strength of a sentence.” 

He suggests that the writer embrace Thoreau’s advice to “simplify.”  To do this, one must always ask himself “what am I trying to say here?” 

“Thinking clearly is a conscious act…Writing is hard work.  A clear sentence is no accident.  Very few sentences come out right the first time, or even the third time.  Remember this in moments of despair.  If you find that writing is hard, it’s because it is hard.”

Notes from the Expert:  Murray on Clarity

In chapter six of The Craft of Revision, Donald M. Murray suggests several ways that you can begin to make sure your writing is clear not only to you, but also to your readers.

1.  Make sure your descriptions have a single, dominant meaning and follow a natural order

• Example of a single, dominant meaning: struggle and being out of place

I saw an angel today, weathered and wheelchair-bound, two stumpy legs sticking out like dead, gnarled tree trunks above a canyon, useless and conspicuous.  I tried not to stare at the rounded protrusions, bumpy like a baby’s head and probably just as soft. 

He came with a bang and a struggle.  I heard him, first too loudly, halfway inside the glass door that wasn’t made for him.  “It needs a handle,” he gasped breathlessly, with the gusty chortle of a seasoned smoker.  His volume then increased, as if to say “I’m tough enough to handle this world, and I’m a fighter.” 

• Examples of natural order:  chronological, arguing weakest to strongest point

2.  Make sure your meaning has a context

• Your reader is going to be asking the question “so what?”  Giving information or a bit of a personal story is not enough; the reader will be looking for a way to understand its full meaning.

3.  Write long and then short.  Shorten for emphasis.  It’s easier to take away from a draft than to add to it.

Revision Tip:  Force yourself to read against your own familiarity

• Read your paper out loud, noting awkward spots and words that don’t belong. 
• Read your paper backwards, sentence-by-sentence.
• Have someone else read your paper to you.
• Have text-to-speech software, have your computer read your paper to you. 
  • [Free] Text2Speech
  • [Free] This program also converts text into an mp3.  Panopreter 3.0.8
  • [Free] This program also converts into wav or mp3 files.  TTSReader

A Practical “Clean Sweep” for Your Writing:  Top 5 Word Eliminations for Clarity

1.  Unnecessary Prepositions

• I’m appointing you to head up this committee.
• We face up to our problems.
• Concern has been expressed as to whether coffee stunts one’s growth.
• Where did he go to?
• Later on, we have a dance rehearsal.
• Cut it up.

2.  Unnecessary Adjectives

• My personal pet peeve is body odor. 
• He was in serious danger.
• I was irresistably drawn to the chocolate bar.
• That student needs individual attention. 
• Many photographers claim that their work is particularly challenging, especially in low-light conditions.  

3.  Unnecessary Phrases

• She received a higher salary than was the case for her friend, Nancy.
• In the majority of instances, plagiarism results in a loss of credit.
• At the present time, all operators are busy.  Please continue to hold.
• He made the team due to the fact that (because) he practiced.
• Not many of the children dislike Mary Poppins.

4.  Unnecessary Words (Eliminate if they don’t add meaning to the whole sentence)

• Check out the OWL resource for the elimination of wordiness

5.  General Words (Replace with concrete nouns and verbs)

• Thing, Anything, Nothing, Everything, Anybody

Everyday Examples of Unclear Writing:

Example #1:  Starbucks Memo

**Please note that I do not believe this to be a valid memo from Starbucks chairman Howard Schultz, only an excellent example of unclear writing**

Before Revision: 

• As you prepare for the FY 08 strategic planning process, I want to share some of my thoughts with you.  Over the past ten years, in order to achieve the growth, development, and scale necessary to go from less than 1,000 stores to 13,000 stores and beyond, we have had to make a series of decisions that, in retrospect, have led to the watering down of the Starbucks experience, and, what some might call the commoditization of our brand.

After Revision:  

• Over the past ten years, in order to achieve the growth necessary to go from less than 1,000 stores to 13,000 stores, we have made decisions that have led to the commoditization of our brand.

 Before Revision: 

• Many of these decisions were probably right at the time, and on their own merit would not have created the dilution of the experience; but in this case, the sum is much greater and, unfortunately, much more damaging than the individual pieces. For example, when we went to automatic espresso machines, we solved a major problem in terms of speed of service and efficiency. At the same time, we overlooked the fact that we would remove much of the romance and theatre that was in play with the use of the La Marzocca machines. This specific decision became even more damaging when the height of the machines, which are now in thousands of stores, blocked the visual sight line the customer previously had to watch the drink being made, and for the intimate experience with the barista. This, coupled with the need for fresh roasted coffee in every North America city and every international market, moved us toward the decision and the need for flavor locked packaging. Again, the right decision at the right time, and once again I believe we overlooked the cause and the affect of flavor lock in our stores. We achieved fresh roasted bagged coffee, but at what cost? The loss of aroma — perhaps the most powerful non-verbal signal we had in our stores; the loss of our people scooping fresh coffee from the bins and grinding it fresh in front of the customer, and once again stripping the store of tradition and our heritage? 

After Revision:

• Many of these decisions, on their own merit would not have created the dilution of the experience; however, the sum of these decisions is much greater and more damaging. For example, when we went to automatic espresso machines, we improved speed of service and efficiency. At the same time, we removed much of the romance and theatre that came with use of the La Marzocca machines. Previously, the customer watched the drink being made, interacting with the barista. The height of the automatic espresso machines has blocked this view and eliminated interaction.  Another example is as follows:  The need for fresh-roasted coffee moved us to use flavor-locked packaging. We achieved fresh-roasted, bagged coffee, but lost the aroma, a powerful non-verbal.  We lost the sight of employees grinding fresh coffee, once again stripping the store of tradition and heritage.

Example #2:  Student Non-Fiction Writing

Before Revision: 

• At nine o’clock we finally passed the dancing snowman again.  Down the stairs, through the crowds and out the revolving doors.  Michigan Avenue glowed incandescent in the white light along the notorious “magnificent mile.”  Horse-drawn carriages clip-clopped down the street in a steady, predictable, even rhythm.  My feet left fresh footprints left by my new furry boots in the newly fallen whiteness.  I shivered through my down jacket even though it was a warm night for Chicago.  Years of Chicago cold never accustomed me to wearing long underwear, and I refused to start the tradition now.  The snowfall brought out new life in people.  Or maybe Christmas joy finally descended upon the vast city.  One woman danced down the street.  Others stuck out pink tongues to catch snowflakes.  I linked arms with the group and skipped up the sidewalk toward Navy Pier.

After Revision:

• It is dusk when we finally leave the mall.  Michigan Avenue glows in soft light along the “magnificent mile.”  Horses with fuzzy reindeer antlers pull carriages, feet clopping in steady rhythms.  I leave fresh footprints in the newly-fallen whiteness, walking slowly like a child.  The snowfall brings out new life in people, turning sour expressions upward.  One woman dances a jig down the street while others stick out wet tongues to catch icy crystals.

Last Words: 

• I hope you will take the time to revise for clarity, with ruthless elimination of the unnecessary.  I’m not promising it will be easy, but it is necessary and rewarding.  Once you have made a “clean sweep” of your writing, you should focus on the remaining strong writing moves in this article series to further develop your style. 
• Next, I have to take one more opportunity to plug the two texts discussed earlier in this article (They’re just that good).  I recommend that you add them to your writing library. 

On Writing Well
The Craft of Revision

• Coming Up:  In part three of this series, we will explore the second strong writing move that will allow you to develop your best writing self: Twist and Break Clichés.

Defining “Voice”

Bear with me for a minute while I define voice, a word often used by writing teachers, yet one that always seems to remain vague to students.  It is helpful, when defining an abstract term, to incorporate a story or brief anecdote, so consider the following experience: 

When I was in the fourth grade, I went to school one day and discovered a hands-on experiment set up, transforming our classroom into a “lab” for the day.  Because I went to a small, Christian school, our experiments were few and far between, so I was immediately interested in our mission:  to scientifically test a variety of white substances with the goal of properly identifying them all.  We had studied the scientific method earlier in the week, patiently memorizing the steps (questioning, observing, hypothesizing, experimenting, analyzing and communicating the results), but this was a practical application of our knowledge.  After blindfolded “touch” and “smell” tests (we learned how to properly waft the scent toward our noses instead of sticking them directly into the test tube), reaction and solubility tests, we had identified all of the substances by their characteristics.  Powdered sugar had a distinctive texture.  Baking soda fizzled when combined with vinegar, and flour responded to the iodine test by turning a dark, bluish-black.

This fourth grade experiment can help with our definition.  Voice is the “substance” of your writing self.  It is what characterizes who you are on paper, transforming your writing from mere information and words to a form of creative expression.  When put to the test, it should reveal your identity, and it should always be distinctive.  Lastly, you will need to experiment with various stylistic moves and practice the craft of writing consistently (this a “hands-on,” interactive activity, friends) in order to develop your writing voice.

Developing Voice = Developing Style

No matter how unique your personality is when verbally communicating, it takes some work to develop voice.  This means focusing not only on what you say, but also on how you say it.  Essentially, voice refers to your writing style, and style (and, hence, your voice) can be developed by understanding strong writing moves, observing them in published writing and practicing/applying them to your own writing.  Now we are getting somewhere in our definition, because style can be characterized:  it is more practical, observable, replicable than the ambiguous “voice” you are supposed to have in your writing.

Have you ever gotten in trouble with a significant other for your “attitude”?  If so, then you know it is possible to communicate the exact same statement with staggeringly different results depending on your non-verbals, your word emphasis, and the tone of your voice.  The statement “Let me get that for you, sweetie…” can be be interpreted in a positive way if accompanied by your movement to help, a look of concern, or even a smile; however, it can also be interpreted in a negative way if you roll your eyes, speak from your spot on the couch, or over-emphasize the word sweetie.

You need to be aware of how the reader will interpret your writing voice, and stylistic choices are the equivalent to your “non-verbals and actions” in the above scenario:  they make a big impact on how your message is received. 

What’s Next?

In part two of this series, we will explore the first of several strong writing moves that will allow you to develop your best writing self:  embrace clarity.

• “It has all of the information in one place.”
• “It’s easy.”
• “Allowing a group of people to edit makes the information even more accurate.”
• “Wikipedia has a system of checking for errors.”

In response to this, I’m still not convinced: 

• Wikipedia may appear to have a wealth of information and resources, but the distribution of information between topics is not equitable in terms of its depth or connection to outside research. 
• The information presented is purely informative, and not analytical in nature, which is to be expected from this type of source.  This is not a one-stop-shop:  it doesn’t allow for interpretation, response, and depth. 
• Although Wikipedia does have a system for editing out mis-information with its system of approved experts as editors, there is still a much greater probability for mis-information from a public forum than from a peer-reviewed publication.  Until someone removes them, the innacuracies are left for all to see, leaving the reader vulnerable.  Along these same lines is the probability that even though information may be technically accurate, it is incorrect in its spelling, context or connection to the other information on the site.  Anyone can post without noting a name or writing affiliation, and that means I am immediately cautious, especially in an academic context where I am responsible for accurately representing the facts.
• Bias may exist in terms of what information is included vs. what information is not included.  You may not be getting all of the puzzle pieces or, in the case of a highly debated topic, you may not be getting the specifics you need, and, instead, receive a watered-down version of the truth that everyone can live with.
• In the Guardian.co.uk article, “Can you Trust Wikipedia?” several published experts in their field were asked to review entries in their area of expertise, with unsatisfactory results.  They noted the following:
  • “It’s obvious that someone has taken care to make the entry factually accurate, even if the way it is written lacks clarity and doesn’t necessarily inspire confidence.”
  • “As a very, very broad-sweep description there are a few correct facts included, but every value judgment it makes is wrong.”

So, in the end, my response to students is this: 

• Use it if you must as a source for creating a preliminary understanding of your topic and to generate key words for your searches. 
• Verify the information you find as accurate by consulting published, scholarly sources. 
• Don’t include Wikipedia on your works cited page because it should not make the cut for what sources are cited in the actual written paper.  There should be far richer texts to find for this purpose.

• Initial Introduction Template:  “Hi, my name is (insert your name here).  I wanted to stop by to formally introduce myself because I am enrolled in your course: (insert the course name here) and would really like to improve/learn/ask (insert your goals, reflection, and/or question here) this semester.  I really appreciated your comment in class (insert the comment here) because (insert your original thoughts on the topic here).” 

2.  Whether or not your professor is a fan of the “drop in” visit, after the introductory visit, you will find it beneficial to make an appointment to discuss a writing assignment.  You may schedule this via email, via telephone, or via a quick chat before or after the class.  Be sure to specify what days and times work best for you, and also how much time you would like to spend discussing your writing (I would suggest 15 or 30 minutes, and never more than 45 minutes at a time).  This is a courtesy to the instructor, and also ensures that you will have the time needed to work on your writing. 

3.  If appropriate, tell the professor that you will email a copy of the paper you wish to discuss in advance of the meeting. 

• In the subject line, remind the professor of your meeting time:  (Your Last Name) Writing Conference (Time) (Date)
• In the body of the email, be sure to let the professor know what specific questions you have or what parts of the paper you are struggling with.

4. When the time for your meeting comes, be punctual and prepared

• Come with two hard copies of the paper you wish to discuss (one for you and one for the professor).  If you are struggling with idea-generation, come with an attempted brainstorm or be prepared to discuss your areas of interest/confusion regarding the assignment. 
• Prepare to take notes or record the conference (be sure to ask for permission) so that you can remember the details.
• Clearly state what you hope to get out of the meeting at the beginning, and let the professor know what kind of guidance you would like to receive from him/her. 
  • Example:  “I’m here today because I’ve been struggling with the first response assignment, and I would like to receive clarification on your expectations”
  • Example:  “I’m here today because I would like to have you look at a draft of my research project.  I feel as if I am not being truly original, and I don’t know how best to go forward with this project.  It would be really helpful if you could start by reading over my thesis statement and concluding paragraphs.”

5. When your allotted time has passed, assess and plan. 

• Attempt to rephrase what you have learned from the professor during the writing conference.  If you have a misunderstanding, this is a chance for the professor to correct it. 
• If appropriate, ask the professor if he/she would help you to set a goal for the assignment and if he/she would meet with you again to go over your progress.

<a href=”http://technorati.com/claim/y878uhn2ve” rel=”me”>Technorati Profile</a>

First of all, know that, although a response paper may be intended to demonstrate that you have read the required text(s), the professor is most likely concerned with more than simple reading comprehension.  He or she is concerned with your thinking.  Therefore, you must not only read to comprehend, but also read to respond and evaluate, adding unique thought and analysis prompted by the original text, extending the author’s thoughts with your own. 

To state it simply, your professor has provided you with the opportunity to read and understand part of the current academic conversation and now wants you to join that academic conversation.  To join this conversation, you must be unique, you must do more than summarize the original text, and you must spend time thinking.  There’s no easy way around thinking in college. 

The following list will help you shape the thinking that you will produce in response to college-level texts.  For all of these suggestions, you should always connect back to the original text(s) with in-text citations, quotes and paraphrasing when appropriate (but be careful not to over-quote or over-paraphrase – you want this paper to be based on the original text, but also a reflection of your own thinking).  This list is by no means comprehensive, but it is a good place to start! 

Ways to Respond to a Text: 

With a Question: 

• Pose a related question to the author and explain how the author might answer it
• Generate a question that the text prompts of you and answer it
• Generate a question that the text prompts of you, and use additional research to extend the author’s ideas

With Comparison/Contrast:

• Compare an author’s claim to the claim(s) made in a different text or by a different author
• Show how an author’s perspective or claim is different from something else or someone else’s idea

With Analysis: 

• Explain an emotional response to the piece you had and analyze what made you have this reaction:  was it something about yourself, culture, or society?
• Explain why you had a hard time connecting with a text or an author’s claim
• If responding to an older text or a different cultural text, explain how the author’s claim might function or malfunction in today’s society or your culture
• Explain how this text could be seen differently through another person’s or another theory’s perspective
• Explain how a controversy or other historical situation may have given rise to the author’s essay
• Expose how your own bias or assumptions may interfere with your reading experience

With Extended Thought:

• Extend one of the author’s ideas into a broader context discussion.  In other words, what is this idea a part of?
• Pose an observation or realization this text sparks in you
• Pose an important word or concept and explain how the author might define it
• Examine a similar or parallel issue that this text is related to

Ways to Evaluate a Text: 

By Arguing for or Against an Idea Offered by the Author:

• If you turned the subject of this text into a question on which people would vote, how would you vote – and why?
• State one of the author’s claims and bring in additional outside reasons and evidence (personal or researched) for or against this claim
• Explain your subtly different definition of a term or perspective of a claim, and why this difference, while subtle, is important
• Expose an author’s assumption or bias and explain why this assumption or bias weakens or strengthens his/her idea

By Arguing for or Against the Way an Author Presents Ideas:

• Evidence:  Do facts and examples fairly represent the available data on the topic?  Are the author’s facts and examples current, accurate?
• Logic:  Has the author adhered to standards of logic?  Has the author avoided, for instance, fallacies such as personal attacks and faulty generalizations?
• Development:  Does each part of the presentation seem well-developed, satisfying to you in the extent of its treatment?  Is each main point adequately illustrated and supported with evidence?
• Fairness:  If the issue being discussed in controversial, has the author seriously considered and responded to his opponents’ viewpoints?
• Definitions:  Have terms important to the discussion been clearly defined – and if not, has lack of definition confused matters?
• Audience:  Is the essay appropriate for its audience – does it convince who it’s intended to convince?

In closing, what other tips do you have for writing a professor-approved response paper?  Which of the above response methods do you find to be the most appropriate and useful?

Yet…there may be something better than this…  With today’s increased connection to the internet and technology, it is not suprising that there are now web-based citation generators offering to do the job for you.  I feel a bit behind the times, as my students now, instead of consulting a book, go straight to one of these citation generators and type in the information they are asked for; their citations appear at the click of a button.  When I ask them to use the good old paperback, groans ensue. 

My question is whether these citation generators should be used, replacing the traditional handbooks and manuals of old.  For one well-acquainted with memorization and flipping through pages, this seems too easy, too cookie-cutter, so I decided to test the accuracy of several citation generators.  An old-school girl like me needs proof that this method really works.  My observations are as follows:   

NoodleBib Express :  This tool allows one to generate a few citations, but one needs to subscribe ($4-8 for an individual subscription) for greater access to the NoodleBib resources.  With this fee, one gains access to expert support for tricky citations in addition to the citation generator and notetaking/note card resources.  This is a positive combination, and (if one has the money) it is a useful resource.  However, with college students always short on pocket change, I’ll offer the following free source links and tell you which one converted me from a strict handbook devotee.

EasyBib :  This tool is user-friendly and free for MLA citations only.  Beware the AutoCite option, which fills in the data for you by “searching” the web.  You’ll need to make sure your i’s are dotted and t’s crossed with this application, it seems.  Although MLA format is free, APA and Chicago/Turabian formats require a subscription and some cash. 

Son of Citation :  Despite its lack of visual appeal, this is a good citation generator in terms of access (all free).  In-text citation format is suggested as an added bonus.

BibMe : This one is very user friendly and offers a citation guide and the option of a free personal account for saving bibliographies.  One chooses the type of source from a variety of colored tabs, and chooses to enter the information manually or to search in “Autofill” mode.  After testing several of my own sources in this tool, I am more than pleased.  You can even download the citations into Microsoft Word, with the formatting taken care of.

So, in the end, I am a surprised convert, and plan to use BibMe for my own graduate school papers. I still will hang on to the Handbook and Manual for additional reference, but it is nice to know I can now save time and be accurate with an online tool.

How to order references in a reference list:

Alphabetical letter by letter:

• Nothing precedes something.  This is why “Smith, T.K.” would precede “Smithson, A.R.”            
• Alphabetize entries with numerals as if the numerals were spelled out
  • Works by same author or same list of authors
    • Arranged by year of publication, the earliest first
  • One author entries precede multiple-author entries containing the same surname
    • References by the same first author, with multiple authors listed, are alphabetized by the last name of the second author.
    • If a piece of information is missing, move the next appropriate piece of information to the beginning of the reference.
    • For example, if there is no author, begin with the next piece of information: the title.

Example References: 

Periodical (published on a regular basis: journals, magazines, scholarly newsletters, etc):
Author, A.A., Author, B.B., & Author, C.C. (1994). Title of article. Title of Periodical, xx, xxx-xxx.

Online Periodical:
Author, A.A., Author, B.B., & Author, C.C. (1994). Title of article. Title of Periodical, xx, xxx-xxx. Retrieved month day, year, from source.

Online Document:
Author, A.A. (1994). Title of work. Retrieved month day, year, from source.

Nonperiodical (published separately: books, reports, brochures, manuals, audiovisual media)
Author, A.A. (1994). Title of work. Location: Publisher.

For more information on APA format, consult my reference:  Publication Manual

• American Psychological Association

What are the Basic Formatting Guidelines?

• APA format requires a title page
• An abstract should come after the title page.  Center the word “Abstract” one inch from the top of the page; double-space the abstract as would do for the body of the paper.
• An abstract is a 100-200 word paragraph that provides readers with a quick overview of your essay.  It should express your main idea and your key points; it also may briefly suggest any implications or applications of the research you will discuss in your paper.  In short, an abstract is a preface of sorts, a summary and brief analysis of your conclusions.
• 1″ margins, double-spaced text, single-spaced footnotes
• The page heading appears on all pages, even the title page
• In APA format, for references listed on the references page, the author’s last name comes first, followed by his/her initials.  The year follows the name, instead of showing up at the end of the entry.  The reason for this difference:  When asked to use APA format, it is usually in those disciplines most concerned with the question of when your reference was published.  Currency matters because information may become outdated and useless as new studies are conducted and new information is discovered. By contrast, MLA format usually appears in English class, a discipline that is more concerned with ideas than how important they are. 
• APA in-text citations require the author or authors’ names and the year published (separated by a comma), instead of the author’s last name and page number (without a comma).
  • Example APA in-text citation:  (Marick, 1990) or (Marick & Nield, 1978)
  • Example MLA in-text citation:  (Marick 90)
• For subsequent in-text citations for the same source written by more than one author, replace the additional authors with “et al.”
  • Example repeat APA multiple-author, in-text citation:  (Marick et al., 1978)
• It is common for APA-style papers to be subdivided, with different sections of the paper under different headings.  Major headings are centered, with all words capitalized except short articles, prepositions, and coordinating conjunctions.
• Quotes longer than 40 words are indented ½ inch from the left margin;  quotation marks are not needed if the quote has been indented as a whole. 
• Footnotes are common (for content notes and copyright permission notes), indicated by using a superscript number in consecutive order.  At the end of the paper, create a footnote page for content and copyright permission footnotes, numbered according to the order in which they appear in the paper. Because APA is a format often requiring original research or statistical tables, pages for each of the tables should appear after the footnotes page(s) at the end of the paper.  Only one table should be on a page. 
• After the footnotes and tables page(s), create a Figure Captions page and a Figures page.  Captions should not be on the same page as the figures themselves.  The figures should have vertical titles appended to their sides which correlate with the captions. 
• All references cited in text must appear on the reference list at the end of the document, and the author must ensure that both the in-text citation and reference list entry are formatted in the same way (same spelling, same year, same information). 

I’ve found writing success and student involvement increased by the following exercise. 

The idea is to complete any sequence of three revision activities described in the boxes (or more).  If you are a student, this is a great way to make sure your paper is thoroughly revised so that you will receive the best possible grade.